[83] found that long-term exposure to microwave radiation (typical mobile phone, at an SAR level range of 0.170.37W/kg for 3h daily for 8months, or wireless digital enhanced cordless telecommunications/telephone (DECT) base at an SAR level range of 0.0120.028W/kg for 8h/d for 8months) induced the synthesis of 143 proteins, including some neuronal function-associated proteins such as glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), glial maturation factor (GMF), apolipo protein E, heat-shock protein, cytoskeletal proteins and some proteins that are associated with metabolism in the brain. Microwave irradiation affects radial-arm maze performance in the rat. The rats in the study showed increases in spatial memory and glucose transporters, and this phenomenon indicated a corresponding increase in glucose uptake. Cosquer et al. Bioelectromagnetics. It has been shown that neurons are sensitive to reductions in the availability of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main source of energy in mitochondria, which have been reported to be vulnerable to microwave radiation [118]. In contrast, a central injection of a glucose carrier inhibitor induced injury to memories [110]. At present, due to a general consensus that the most significant parameter for . 2000;11:16413. Am J Epidemiol. [46] found that by excessively activating the NMDA receptor signaling pathway, microwaves undermine hippocampal synaptic plasticity, explaining the damage observed in learning and memory abilities in radiated rats. However, it concurrently also declared that the carcinogenic potential of mobile communications equipment was limited to glioma [4]. An increasing level of acetylcholine can increase the concentration of free calcium ions in synapses, but its concentration was decreased by 60% after exposure to microwave irradiation [117]. Low intensity microwave radiation induced oxidative stress, inflammatory response and DNA damage in rat brain. These results explain the genetic mechanisms by which microwave radiation induces damage to learning and memory. 2009;158:12639. 2.45 GHz Microwave Radiation Impairs Learning and Spatial Memory via Oxidative/Nitrosative Stress Induced p53-Dependent/Independent Hippocampal Apoptosis: Molecular Basis and Underlying Mechanism. Joubert V, Bourthoumieu S, Leveque P, Yardin C. Apoptosis is induced by radiofrequency fields through the caspase-independent mitochondrial pathway in cortical neurons. PubMed Nakatani-Enomoto S, Furubayashi T, Ushiyama A, Groiss SJ, Ueshima K, Sokejima S, et al. A popular focus among researchers is the damage that microwave radiation causes in the central nervous system, in which it can impair learning and memory. 2009;72:20514. 2017;326:291. Microwaves are widely used in broadcasting, communications and many industrial fields. Therefore, their reproducibility and comparability are poor. 2017;38:106976. 2013;5:5500110. Is nuclear respiratory factor 2 a master transcriptional coordinator for all ten nuclear-encoded cytochrome c oxidase subunits in neurons? Brain electrical activity originates from the membrane potential of the neuron itself and the fluctuation in membrane potential. Li M, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Zhou Z, Yu Z. Elevation of plasma corticosterone levels and hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor translocation in rats: a potential mechanism for cognition impairment following chronic low-power-density microwave exposure. An increase in anxiety-related behaviors and a decrease in depression-related behavior were observed in both female and male offspring. Jeong J. EEG dynamics in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, in this article, we reviewed recent studies that have explored the effects of microwave radiation on the brain, especially the hippocampus, including analyses of epidemiology, morphology, electroencephalograms, learning and memory abilities and the mechanisms underlying brain dysfunction. However, its beneficial effects should not be ignored [26]. Int J Radiat Biol. 2009;63:10106. Effect on human attention of exposure to the electromagnetic field emitted by mobile phones. This conclusion is consistent with the results of a previously reported study that showed that short-term exposure to microwave radiation can reduce reaction times and improve cognitive functions, attention and short-term memory capacity [28,29,30,31,32,33,34]. Resting state cortical EEG rhythms in Alzheimer's disease: toward EEG markers for clinical applications: a review. Regional changes in brain glucose metabolism reflect cognitive impairments in aged rats. Li-Feng Wang or Xiang-Jun Hu. Cell Biochem Biophys. Hinrikus H, Bachmann M, Lass J, Karai D, Tuulik V. Effect of low frequency modulated microwave exposure on human EEG: individual sensitivity. Xiong L, Sun CF, Zhang J, Gao YB, Wang LF, Zuo HY, et al. Among the variety of neurotransmitters, glutamate is the most abundant endogenous amino acid in the mammalian central nervous system. Dasdag S, Akdag MZ, Kizil G, Kizil M, Cakir DU, Yokus B. Radiat Res. Repeated exposure to low-level extremely low frequency-modulated microwaves affects cortex-hypothalamus interplay in freely moving rats: EEG study. Acetylcholine modulation of neural systems involved in learning and memory. Wang L, Li X, Peng R, Gao Y, Zhao L, Wang S, et al. By using this website, you agree to our 2005;1042:1018. Exposure of rat brain to 915 MHz GSM microwaves induces changes in gene expression but not double stranded DNA breaks or effects on chromatin conformation. [81] reported a study exploring the influence of mobile phone microwave radiation on oxidative stress and apoptosis in rat brains. In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) announced that microwave radiation has potentially carcinogenic effects (2B). Morris R. Developments of a water-maze procedure for studying spatial learning in the rat. PubMed 2009;64:2314. Protein synthesis is necessary for dendritic spine proliferation in adult brain slices. This damage plays a key role in the structural and functional changes that are accelerated by neuronal degeneration. miRNAs are non-coding sequences with a length of approximately 22 nucleotides that have roles in cell development and differentiation and are also linked to signal transduction and tumorigenesis. Zhang Y, Li Z, Gao Y. The biological effects of microwave and RF are difficult to quantify, but one method, which in-volves the determination of the relation-ship between the body mass-averaged One of the bad impacts a microwave has on humans, is that some of the acids in the food people put in the microwave, gets transformed into a type of acid which turns poisonous. 2003;140:147. 1 Microwave radiation may also lead to skin cancer/health problems when we are within the radius of a cell phone tower in a certain specified limited distance. The hippocampus plays roles in learning and memory, and the results of these studies suggest that the deficits in learning and memory functions observed after exposure to microwave irradiation might be due to abnormalities induced in hippocampal structures. Acetylcholine: cognitive and brain functions. [65] irradiated Wistar rats with 10, 30 and 50mW/cm2 microwaves, and the results showed that in the cerebral cortex, only glycine (Gly) and asparagine (Asp) levels were increased. After exposure to microwave irradiation (an average power density of 30mW/m2 for 5min/d on five days a week for two consecutive months), the expression of NR2B was decreased in rats, the level of Glu was increased in the hippocampus and cerebrospinal fluid, spatial memory ability was decreased among rats with the TT genotype, and there was no change in the CC type and TC type animals. Qiao S, Peng R, Yan H, Gao Y, Wang C, Wang S, et al. 2004;48:46624. So foods which have high water content can be very easily cooked like fresh vegetables. GSM mobile phone radiation suppresses brain glucose metabolism. 2010;3:4650. biological effects of electromagnetic waves started to be discussed. volume4, Articlenumber:29 (2017) After exposure to microwave radiation, during synaptic structural plasticity, presynaptic vesicles accumulate or empty, mitochondria are damaged, postsynaptic membranes are perforated, postsynaptic lengths and postsynaptic density distributions are abnormal, mossy fiber growth is inhibited during learning and memory functions, dendritic filopodial densities and activities are decreased, and there is a significant reduction of the dendritic spine density and dendritic fragment length [62]. The results showed that at 6h, 1 d and 3 d after exposure, the groups in which the average power density was 10mW/cm2 or 50mW/cm2 displayed significant deficits in spatial learning and memory. Sleep EEG alterations: effects of pulsed magnetic fields versus pulse-modulated radio frequency electromagnetic fields. Mitochondrial lipid abnormality and electron transport chain impairment in mice lacking -synuclein. Research continues on possible biological effects of exposure to RF/MW radiation from radios, cellular phones, the processing and cooking of foods, heat . millimeter, or equivalently. Edelstyn N, Oldershaw A. Baer C, Claus R, Plass C. Genome-wide epigenetic regulation of miRNAs in cancer. Bioelectromagnetics. This study concerns the effects of microwave on health because they pervade diverse fields of our lives. With the increasing number of applications that use microwave technology, its negative effects on the human body have attracted attention. Besides, the Soviet Union banned microwaves in 1976 . Wang et al. radiation with wavelengths. Caubet R, Pedarros-Caubet F, Chu M, Freye E, de Belem RM, Moreau J, et al. Chin J Birth Health Hered. 2014;12:75. 2006;79:13140. In the cell experiments, the T allele was significantly more vulnerable to microwaves than the C allele with regard to its transcription factor binding ability and the transcriptional activity and mRNA and protein expression of NR2B. Ning W, Chiang H, Yang W. Effects of GSM 1800 MHz on dendritic development of cultured hippocampal neurons. Google Scholar. Per the FDA, the microwave can heat human skin. 2006;27:16471. Describes the health effects on six men exposed to high levels of RF radiation (100 MHz) while working on transmission masts. An abnormal EEG is closely associated with damaged cognitive ability. Szmigielski S. Cancer risks related to low-level RF/MW exposures, including cell phones. 2004;2004:19. Mitochondria morphologic changes and metabolic effects of rat hippocampus after microwave irradiation. Qutob S, Chauhan V, Bellier P, Yauk C, Douglas G, Berndt L, et al. The induced genes encoded proteins with a variety of functions, including neurotransmitter regulation, BBB maintenance, and melatonin production. PubMed Hardell L, Carlberg M, Mild KH, Eriksson M. Case-control study on the use of mobile and cordless phones and the risk for malignant melanoma in the head and neck region. Verma RK, Sisodia R, Bhatia A. Radioprotective role of Amaranthus Gangeticus Linn. Synapses are special structures that are involved in the transmission of electrochemical signals between neurons in the central nervous system. These conclusions are presented in Table2. Zhang proposed that the sex-dependent relationship between microwaves and the behavior of offspring may be related to sex hormones, and female rats may be equivalently protected by reducing oxidative stress levels. N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor (NMDAR) is a tetramer composed of two NR1 and two NR2 subunits or two NR3 subunits that perform the functions of NMDAR [69, 70], and NMDAR plays key roles in synapse development, synaptic plasticity and neurological diseases. [1] used 10 freely moving rats in which carbon electrodes were implanted in the cortex and dorsomedial hypothalamus. 2012;35:32534. Synapse. J Radiat Res (Tokyo). 2011;31:2293301. Singh S, Mani KV, Kapoor N. Effect of occupational EMF exposure from radar at two different frequency bands on plasma melatonin and serotonin levels. [92] found that 900MHz microwave radiation emitted by mobile phones increased protein carbonyl levels in the brains of rats, suggesting that 900MHz microwave radiation can alter some biomolecules such as proteins. 2004;23:20114. CAS Relationship between cognition function and hippocampus structure after long-term microwave exposure. Behav Brain Res. Muscat JE, Malkin MG, Thompson S, Shore RE, Stellman SD, McRee D, et al. Gene. Li H, Li C. Apoptosis gene expression and their relationship to mtDNA mutation in tumor tissues of gynecologic oncology patients. Mortazavi SMJ, Taeb S, Dehghan N. Alterations of visual reaction time and short term memory in military radar personnel. In summary, there is evidence that microwave radiation can lead to alterations in protein synthesis or protein modifications; however, the results are controversial. Prog Biophys Mol Biol. Belyaev IY, Koch CB, Terenius O, Roxstrm-Lindquist K, Malmgren LO, Sommer HW, et al. Moreover, the popularization of mobile phones has made them the main source of brain exposure to radiation. The results indicated that repeated low-level exposure to extremely low frequency microwaves affects brain functioning and provide an additional approach to analyzing the underlying mechanisms. 2003;11:346. More than 50% of miRNAs are found in cancer-associated regions of the genome or in fragile sites, suggesting that miRNAs also play important roles in the pathogenesis of neoplasias [96]. Use of mobile phones and risk of brain tumours: update of Danish cohort study. Mil Med Sci. Identification of a novel rat nr2b subunit gene promoter region variant and its association with microwave-induced neuron impairment. Myung SK, Ju W, McDonnell DD, Lee YJ, Kazinets G, Cheng CT, et al. Szmigielski [23] collected retrospective data for Polish soldiers over 15years and showed that the prevalence of brain cancer was higher in each age group. Decreased expression of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA-encoded genes of oxidative phosphorylation in association neocortex in Alzheimer disease. Radial arm maze performance of rats following repeated low level microwave radiation exposure. The largest problem in these studies is that they used different parameters, such as the frequency, modulation, power density and irradiation time, to apply microwave radiation, in addition to using a variety of research methods. Google Scholar. Modulation of HSP response in SH-SY5Y cells following exposure to microwaves of a mobile phone. [102] exposed rats to 9.15MHz microwaves (SAR: 0.4mW/g) for 2h. They found that in the cerebellum of all the exposed animals, 11 genes were up-regulated from 1.34- to 2.74-fold, and one gene was down-regulated 0.48-fold. [78] exposed differentiated astroglial cells that were cultured for 14days in vitro to either continuous 900MHz waves or 900MHz waves modulated in amplitude at 50Hz using a sinusoidal wave form and 100% modulation index for 5, 10, or 20min. [68] radiated Wistar rats with microwaves (30mW/cm2; SAR value, 14.1W/kg), and then detected the expression of synaptic vesicle-associated proteins and found that synaptophys in I and VAMP-2, which are synaptic fusion proteins, and synaptic vesicle proteins were abnormally expressed to different degrees. Richter ED, Berman T, Levy O. In addition, glucose is also related to cognitive functions, and reductions in the metabolism and uptake of glucose have been observed in local regions of the brain in Alzheimers patients [107, 108]. Article For example, it can shorten reaction times so that people can better cope with danger. Koch C, Zador A. Neuroreport. Hippocampal acetylcholine release during memory testing in rats: augmentation by glucose. Damage to learning abilities and reduction of glucose utilization in the limbic system of adult rats are closely linked [109]. [27] found that college students visual reaction times were significantly shorter after 10min of phone-induced microwave radiation. In a study investigating the influence of low-frequency microwave (450MHz) radiation on EEG, Hinrikus et al. [80] found that irradiation with 900MHz, 2W/kg continuous microwaves for 24h induced an increase in rat neuronal apoptosis. Nicholson RM, Kusne Y, Nowak LA, LaFerla FM, Reiman EM, Valla J. Medical and biological aspects of the effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic (EM) fields and radiation on human health . Privacy Suhhova A, Bachmann M, Karai D, Lass J, Hinrikus H. Effect of microwave radiation on human EEG at two different levels of exposure. Koivisto M, Krause CM, Revonsuo A, Laine M, Hmlinen H. The effects of electromagnetic field emitted by GSM phones on working memory. PubMed Nature. Smythe JW, Costall B. 2012;3:3440. Biochemical modifications and neuronal damage in brain of young and adult rats after long-term exposure to mobile phone radiations. 2017;52:23947. [37] exposed male Wistar rats (1012weeks old) to a Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) (900/1800MHz) mobile phone that was in vibrating mode (i.e., no ring tone). Gibson GE, Jope R, Blass J. Behav Brain Res. 2003;41:26887. 2001;93:2037. However, there was no change in the frequency of AMPA mEPSCs or the amplitudes of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) mEPSCs. The Morris water maze has been widely used in neurobehavioral tests [36]. Of these, five rats were repeatedly exposed to extremely low-frequency microwaves (915MHz; pulse width, 20ms; average power density, 0.3mW/cm2; repetition frequency, 4.0Hz; intermittently for 1min, On for 1min, and Off for 10min; SAR, 0.7mW/g) and 5 were in the sham group. Melatonin and serotonin levels were estimated, which play important roles in the nervous system. NR2B plays a key role in LTP and was decreased from the 3rd to the 18th month post-treatment, and long-term exposure to high doses of radiation may therefore damage cognitive functions. Springer Nature. The results of this study showed that chronic exposure to Wi-Fi electromagnetic waves might impair both unimodal and cross-modal encoding of information. Occupational Medicine (London) 50.1 (January 2000):49-56. 2015;91:30611. Dasdag et al. EEG is often used as a tool to diagnose Alzheimers disease [48]. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-017-0139-0, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-017-0139-0. To determine the specific dose-effect relationship between microwave radiation and its biological effects, more intensive studies must be performed. These spines have been reported to share a close relationship with learning and memory abilities, and when protein synthesis in dendritic spines is blocked, new spine growth and the development of long spines are both decreased [91]. However, there is little scientific evidence to demonstrate that children are more sensitive to electromagnetic radiation than adults [24, 25]. 1994;10:13548. Neurobiol Learn Mem. Among radar workers exposed to 1418GHz microwaves, the somatic symposium anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction and severe depression were caused [19]. However, in rats treated with long-term exposure to radiation, neurons exhibit edema and are arranged irregularly. [103] found that microwave radiation caused DNA single-strand and double-strand breaks in vivo in populations submitted to occupational exposure, and the incidence of micronuclei in lymphocytes was significantly increased. Maternal exposure to Wi-Fi radio frequencies led to various adverse neurological effects in the offspring. Brain Res. . 2016;53:210011. To investigate the potential combined influence of maternal restraint stress and 2.45GHz Wi-Fi signal exposure on postnatal development and behavior in the offspring of exposed rats, control, Wi-Fi-exposed, restrained and both Wi-Fi-exposed and restrained groups were established. 1999;75:44756. 2006;98:170713. It has also been reported that acute exposure to continuous waves of 900MHz EMF or 900MHz waves that were modulated to an amplitude of 50Hz increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and DNA fragmentation as a result of the hyperstimulation of glutamate receptors [73]. Wang H, Peng R, Zhao L, Wang S, Gao Y, Wang L, et al. Int J Radiat Biol. In broadcasting, the sources of microwaves are mainly FM radio and TV broadcasting antennas, which produce frequencies ranging from 80 to 800MHz. Standard devices used by military personnel that may pose electromagnetic hazards include radars and missile systems. Othman H, Ammari M, Rtibi K, Bensaid N, Sakly M, Abdelmelek H. Postnatal development and behavior effects of in-utero exposure of rats to radiofrequency waves emitted from conventional WiFi devices. Calabr E, Magaz S. Inspections of mobile phone microwaves effects on proteins secondary structure by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Zhang et al. 1994;8:714. However, a recent report [3] published by the Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) noted that discussions about the thermal and non-thermal effects are misleading. Lnn S, Ahlbom A, Hall P, Feychting M. Long-term mobile phone use and brain tumor risk. CAS Biomed Environ Sci. Merola et al. This phenomenon may be explained by the varied radiation dosage adopted in these studies. Electromagn Biol Med. Kang D, Hamasaki N. Mitochondrial transcription factor a in the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA. Symptoms included headache, paresthesia, diarrhea, malaise and lassitude. The ionotropic receptors consist of NMDA receptors and non-NMDA receptors. Int J Radiat Biol. Lai et al. In the CNS, glutamic acid binds and plays physiological roles with the following two receptors: ionotropic glutamate and metabolic glutamate. Chin J Indus Hyg. 2015;91:55561. J Mol Neurosci. Google Scholar. Cull-Candy SG, Leszkiewicz DN. Biochem J. Wang LF, Tian DW, Li HJ, Gao YB, Wang CZ, Zhao L, et al. The relationship between NMDA receptors and microwave induced learning and memory impairment: a long term observation on Wistar rats. 1992;6:379. The article's subject is the investigation of electromagnetic fields (EMF) of the microwave frequency band in a typical human living environment, especially in shielded areas. Vorobyov V, Janac B, Pesic V, Prolic Z. Many intricate electrical activities occur in the central nervous system, including learning and memory, which are therefore vulnerable to electromagnetic radiation. Wang Q, Cao Z. 2007;210:63544. Bioelectromagnetics. Iran J Public Health. Therefore, the central nervous system is considered one of the most sensitive organs that is targeted by microwave radiation [1, 2]. 2008;86:718. It has been reported that microwave radiation can induce lipid peroxidation of cell membranes and produce apoptotic signals [74, 75]. Neurotoxicology. A large number of studies have shown that microwave radiation can cause a series of adverse reactions in the central nervous system, including sleep disorders in addition to learning and memory impairments. 2013;34:58998. The results of EEG and analyses of the structure of the brain after radiation have also confirmed the influence of microwaves. 2005;161:52635. [111] found that the rate of glucose metabolism in the brains of rats was lower after short-term exposure to microwave radiation, and the blood glucose management reduced the damage that was caused by microwave radiation due to the decreased glucose uptake (2.45MHz, 1mW/cm2, continuous radiation for 30 d at 3h/d), as were learning and memory capacity. The role of microRNAs in cancer. Subsequently, significantly more DNA damage was observed in the exposed groups than in the sham group, and their study also indicated that oxidative stress and inflammation caused DNA damage in response to low-intensity microwave exposure. The mechanism by which microwave radiation decreases glucose, resulting in impaired learning and memory in rats, may be related to an increase in the synthesis and release of acetylcholine in the hippocampus. pability of the body (thus, a thermal effect), whereas the standard of the U.S.S.R. and Poland are based upon the interaction of the microwave fields with the brain and central nervous system as measured by neurological or behavior effects. 1988;9:33745. Szmigielski S. Cancer morbidity in subjects occupationally exposed to high frequency (radiofrequency and microwave) electromagnetic radiation. 2002;5:18995. 2011;174:211. 2014;70:84555. 2013;42:428. Nuclear pyknosis and capillary congestion are also observed. Narayanan SN, Kumar RS, Potu BK, Nayak S, Mailankot M. Spatial memory perfomance of wistar rats exposed to mobile phone. The direct cause of the observed neuronal damage may have been apoptosis induced by the microwave radiation, and an indirect cause may have been an increase in permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which would allow the traversal of toxic substances that could cause damage. Abnormality of synaptic vesicular associated proteins in cerebral cortex and hippocampus after microwave exposure. Cellular telephones and cancera nationwide cohort study in Denmark. Electromagnetic radiation can be absorbed by organisms, in which it causes a series of physiological and functional changes. In the population with occupational exposure, proper protective measures should be taken to avoid unnecessary harm. . 2008;169:3845. Human SH-SY5YNB cells were exposed to 2.1GHz W-CDMA modulated microwave radiation for 24h at a specific absorption rate of 0.491W/kg. Effects of isothermal 2.45 GHz microwave radiation on the mammalian cell Ci ihff fihl2MHdifdi i Bi l h. C Spr '05 Inan, OT Thermal effects of RF he above diagram depicts the electric field alternations, at a frequency f, of the 2006;12:44651. Khurana VG, Teo C, Kundi M, Hardell L, Carlberg M. Cell phones and brain tumors: a review including the long-term epidemiologic data. Synaptic plasticity is a special function of synapses, which play an important role in learning and memory processes [46], including structural and functional plasticity. static fields, health effects, human health, environmental effects, SCENIHR, Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks Opinion to be cited as: One study reported by the Interphone study group [13] showed that there was no increase in the risk of glioma or meningioma in users of mobile phones. Since mobile phones are used in positions very close to the human body and require a large Chizhenkova R. Slow potentials and spike unit activity of the cerebral cortex of rabbits exposed to microwaves. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. Schmid MR, Murbach M, Lustenberger C, Maire M, Kuster N, Achermann P, et al. Microarray gene expression profiling of a human glioblastoma cell line exposed in vitro to a 1.9 GHz pulse-modulated radiofrequency field. J Environ Health. Rev Environ Health. The microwave will do its intended job of heating and will start to burn (or cook) the skin tissue. Acta Pharmacol Sin. Li Z, Peng RY, Wang SM, Wang LF, Gao YB, Ji D, et al. 2010;2010. Positive results were obtained in Morris water maze tests that demonstrated that microwaves influenced learning and memory in rats. Particularly, the dramatically increasing number of mobile phones users rise significant concerns due to its potential damage on people exposed by radiofrequency waves. Decreased synthesis of acetylcholine accompanying impaired oxidation of pyruvic acid in rat brain minces. Ellis CE, Murphy EJ, Mitchell DC, Golovko MY, Scaglia F, Barcel-Coblijn GC, et al.